Dr. Bryski
Critical Frameworks Paper
Effective Content : British Propaganda and World War One: The Pen and The Sword.
I wanted to write on the propaganda efforts in both WWI and WWII by all involved, The American and Russian propaganda machines as well as Germany’s in the Second World War are all fascinating and viable topics, but due to an overwhelmingly large base of facts and opinions I decided to focus on the British effort in WWI because it seemed not only to prove effective, but it also set the stage for future war propaganda efforts.
To me, propaganda is a fascinating area of communication, and one that raises interesting questions when applied to every one of the critical frameworks of mass media analysis. One could examine the style and aesthetics of an individual piece of propaganda and analyze its symbolic meaning. One could question indefinately over the ethicality of the art. One could quibble over generic placement of propagandic artifacts, is an add for the millitary any more or less propagandic than the commercial for the violent reality based video game that follows? Context becomes perhaps the most important componant, because the purpose of the effort is to redirect the climate of opinion. Since this is a research paper, I thought it would be best to narrow my scope down to one specific propaganda effort and not only look at and criticize the media artifacts, but also the individuals who helped in their creation. I hope that by the end of this paper, the reader will have a better knowledge of the history of effective propaganda content.
The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by vast changes in social and economic philosophies all across the globe. While some of those changes affected the everyday citizens of Europe, other changes in the philosophies of nationalism and communication affected the way the public was viewed by the people who were governing them, as well as their enemies. The realization of the effectiveness of propaganda by the British in World War One on both the British public and the German army and citizens, ushered in a new age of warfare, one that was not only technologically superior (if you consider a gun to be a step up from the sword) but one where the psychological aspects of the governed were subjected to modification for the good of the cause.
For Americans, the most famous image of propaganda is usually the “ I Want You” poster featuring Uncle Sam pointing at the viewer. Most Americans probably are
unaware, however, that the Uncle Sam poster is an Americanized version of a very similar poster used by the British to enlist during World War One.
Propaganda was a common tool of dictators and governments long before the First World War, but there were difficulties to overcome in getting their message across for many reasons. For one, public awareness of propaganda on a mass scale was hard to achieve because of the isolation of different cities and the rather poor methods of inter communication available. Also, due to rampant illiteracy, the public was unable to decipher the messages. By the early twentieth century, however, the general public all over Europe was connected better in terms of mass communication, and was more socially aware of it’s identity as a “public” thanks in part to the French Revolution. In addition, the public was not only literate, but intelligent and capable of understanding not only words, but the symbols of nationalism and propaganda. One could almost speak of propaganda as the fuel of nationalism, and in the time of war, the fires need to be continually stoked.
At the beginning of the war in 1914, the British government was still somewhat in shock at the sudden reality of actual war. The idea of using propaganda to help enlist neutral countries to join the allies against the Germans suddenly seemed like more than just a hypothetical situation. In what would turn into the beginning of the intellectual battlefield, Prime Minister Asquith appointed C.F.G. Masterman as the head of a previously non-existent British propaganda department. Masterman had been an unnotable member of the British Parliament for years, but the faith of his well-positioned friends, and his resourceful nature proved to give the allies a great weapon in the first few years of the war. On Sept. 2, 1914, Masterman held a secret meeting at the Wellington House, which had become home to the Ministry of Propaganda. At this meeting were twenty-five of the most well renowned authors in England. Some of the more easily recognized names include H.G. Wells, Rudyard Kipling, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. These men were not only well known writers of fiction, but also well respected social commentators whose views were disseminated throughout the media. In what would turn into one of the greatest examples of government and the arts working together (for good or ill) these authors agreed to assist in the propaganda movement, anonymously of course. This, I believe, is an early example of the two step flow theory at work, being that these men influenced huge segments of the British population with their writing. Engaging the intellectual element of British society shows the importance that Masterman and the government put onto the propaganda effort, and also an interesting ploy on behalf of the government to win the loyalty of the intellectual class. The use of
their expertise was instrumental in crafting the romantic notion of war that became such an enticing snare for young men all across the globe. This romantic image of war still permeates the media, from film to Fox (faux) News. Not only this romantic image of war did the authors propagate, but even in fiction stories like Conan Doyle’s classic Sherlock Holmes, characters would pontificate on the symbolic re-emergence of Britain into a better day, tying nationalistic propaganda into situations that were far removed from the standard theatre of war.
The German invasion of and subsequent routing of Belgium and it’s citizens gave the propaganda ministry a juicy subject to begin it’s campaign to win the hearts and minds of the British people as well as possible allies. Posters and pamphlets decried the atrocities committed by the Germans, and it had a galvanizing effect on the public. Wilhelm and his officers were routinely the butt of cartoons, postcards and posters, not only framed as incompetents, but also in what some would consider racially demeaning when the German public begins to be referred to as “ Huns”. An image that not only is widely accepted as truth by the allies, but that also sparks more fear, anger, and nationalism. This sort of propaganda became known as “ atrocity propaganda” and it was extremely effective in not only reinforcing the Allies somewhat skewed belief of German viciousness, but also in tying up German intellectuals in the defense of these sometimes embellished tracts. The propaganda that arose from the invasion became one of the most convincing and inflammatory reasons for neutral countries to join the war.
The Ministry of Propaganda not only understood the importance of controlling morale in the homeland, but it also understood the importance of propagandizing the enemy. Early in the war, pamphlets were already being mailed to Germans from the British via Holland. The use of war pamphlets to both demoralize the enemy and solidify the Allies became one of the most important factors in the war. It is estimated that the British created and distributed some 250,000 pieces of propaganda from 1914 –1916. (Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, p.19)
The pamphlets were created to cover a variety of different topics, and naturally, were written in different languages. By 1915, pamphlets such as the Report on German Outrages had given the Allies a clear-cut vision of not only the reinforcement of the Allies strengths and morality, but also the obvious immorality of the Germans. On the battlefield, pamphlets dropped from balloons informed the German soldiers of the atrocities being committed in their names, and also the fruitlessness of their endeavor. Undermining the morale of the German troops at the frontlines, while it might not be the most significant accomplishment of British war propaganda, certainly helped turning the tide in favor of the Allies.
While the war itself raged on, the importance of American involvement became imperative. While the Germans were slow to begin their propaganda machine at home, let alone abroad, the British were inundating the states with material, and gaining the support of the politicians and the people. This began as early as 1914 with the visitation of James
Barrie, author of Peter Pan and another author, A.E.W. Mason to the states with rather disastrous results. Since Americans were mostly neutral, and there were Americans who supported Germany, the idea of British Intellectuals infiltrating the professors of America and planting the seeds of loyalty to the Allies was bound to cause damage to the hopes Britain had of convincing America to side with her. The incident was further agitated when Barrie was forced to lie to the American press about the relationships of authors with the British propaganda machine, the fact was still a secret. Eventually however, such American thinkers as Theodore Roosevelt, Henry James, and Edith Wharton were producing stateside propaganda in favor of the Allies. Roosevelt began with newspaper articles discussing the situation in Belgium, and became more pro-war after the sinking of the Lusitania. James’s romanticisation of the intellectual and philosophical ramifications of service brought to the American and Allied forces an unusually educated class of soldiers who had envisioned the war as a noble and manly cause. By 1917, within the first week of America entering the war, George Creel was named the head of the American propaganda effort. In a way, the propigandization of America created the perfect atmosphere for the nationalism and social identity that found itself at the heart of America for the entire twentieth century, Roosevelt’s “ Americanism” ideal.
While Germany had an extremely effective propaganda machine in the Second World War, their efforts in the first were no match for the smooth intellectualism of the British model. Part of the reason is because the German propaganda department at the time was also part of the news department, and most of the emphasis was on keeping the public informed as to the events of the day. Also, even the printed propaganda produced by the Germans was unusable as it was printed in German, the prevailing sentiment at the time being that everyone spoke German. While it can be argued that the outcome of the war would have been the same whether or not psychological warfare was used, the ability for the Allies to create dissent in the German ranks and the inability of the German command to retaliate or counter these attacks certainly must have had some effect.
While there are many types of wartime propaganda, the most effective are the pieces that reinforce what the public already inherently believes, more than convince them of new information. Pamphlets can be used for either information or misinformation. Writers can glorify and romanticize the image of war to lead the young and ignorant blind to the slaughter through both war reporting and fiction. Film can also play a large role. Though it had not yet found it’s niche in 1915, film was available of the battles, for the first time in history, and the British created propaganda films based around this real footage. Both for glorifying battle, and reinforcing the animalistic stereotype of the German military. In fact, until the film All Quiet on the Western Front was released in 1930, the romanticized image of the soldier in WWI was prevalent in film
internationally. The things that made Western Front different was that there was no main character or romantic subplot, and new technologies made the audio much more realistic for the viewer. The idealized soldier that was created by the intellectual mythology of world war one has become a standard character in modern cinema of all nationalities. This romantic myth is still echoed in our culture in everything from G.I.Joe to the hyper masculinity of Rambo.
Masterman only lasted a few years as head of British Propaganda, after a few years, his guardian angel, Lord Asquith was no longer in power and the organization that Masterman had begun had come under fire from all angles. But his unique and progressive approach of bringing intellectuals into the world of global politics had a lasting effect on the way wars are fought. As study of communication increased during the 20th century, and so did the methods ( radio, TV. ) of dissemination, propaganda has become harder to decipher. If we look at the Masterman model of nationalistic intellectualism we can easily trace the roots of modern propaganda back to 1914. In the time following his absence the British government often went too far in demonizing the German population, post world war one, and some believe this was the reason that the citizenry was not more quickly alarmed by the actions of Hitler in his formative years.
The war was won in the trenches and with the bodies of countless young men. Whether or not the propaganda efforts affected the public positively or negatively may not have that much significance, and certainly the effort to withhold information or slant it for public consumption will remain a dangerous option for peacetime and wartime governments. In our more violent and instantaneous media format of today, selling the romantic image of the military is virtually impossible. With the war in Iraq, enlistment in the armed forces is at an all time low, One wonders if President Cheney might want to take a page from Mastermans playbook and hire Tom Clancy and Jerry Bruckhiemer to help reinforce some good old-fashioned nationalism. Or if he already has.
I’ve always wanted to know the history of propaganda since it is such an effective tool in communication. It has always been fascinating to me that people will use distortion and confusion to achieve their aims, and that the truth is rarely enough to bend the masses to a governments will. Propaganda, to me, serves the opposite purpose of what media artifacts should serve, they exist to inform, persuade, and entertain falsity. It is the ultimate bastardization of the function of the media and it was at the hands of British intellectauls that this craft was perfected.
Critical Frameworks Paper
Effective Content : British Propaganda and World War One: The Pen and The Sword.
I wanted to write on the propaganda efforts in both WWI and WWII by all involved, The American and Russian propaganda machines as well as Germany’s in the Second World War are all fascinating and viable topics, but due to an overwhelmingly large base of facts and opinions I decided to focus on the British effort in WWI because it seemed not only to prove effective, but it also set the stage for future war propaganda efforts.
To me, propaganda is a fascinating area of communication, and one that raises interesting questions when applied to every one of the critical frameworks of mass media analysis. One could examine the style and aesthetics of an individual piece of propaganda and analyze its symbolic meaning. One could question indefinately over the ethicality of the art. One could quibble over generic placement of propagandic artifacts, is an add for the millitary any more or less propagandic than the commercial for the violent reality based video game that follows? Context becomes perhaps the most important componant, because the purpose of the effort is to redirect the climate of opinion. Since this is a research paper, I thought it would be best to narrow my scope down to one specific propaganda effort and not only look at and criticize the media artifacts, but also the individuals who helped in their creation. I hope that by the end of this paper, the reader will have a better knowledge of the history of effective propaganda content.
The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by vast changes in social and economic philosophies all across the globe. While some of those changes affected the everyday citizens of Europe, other changes in the philosophies of nationalism and communication affected the way the public was viewed by the people who were governing them, as well as their enemies. The realization of the effectiveness of propaganda by the British in World War One on both the British public and the German army and citizens, ushered in a new age of warfare, one that was not only technologically superior (if you consider a gun to be a step up from the sword) but one where the psychological aspects of the governed were subjected to modification for the good of the cause.
For Americans, the most famous image of propaganda is usually the “ I Want You” poster featuring Uncle Sam pointing at the viewer. Most Americans probably are
unaware, however, that the Uncle Sam poster is an Americanized version of a very similar poster used by the British to enlist during World War One.
Propaganda was a common tool of dictators and governments long before the First World War, but there were difficulties to overcome in getting their message across for many reasons. For one, public awareness of propaganda on a mass scale was hard to achieve because of the isolation of different cities and the rather poor methods of inter communication available. Also, due to rampant illiteracy, the public was unable to decipher the messages. By the early twentieth century, however, the general public all over Europe was connected better in terms of mass communication, and was more socially aware of it’s identity as a “public” thanks in part to the French Revolution. In addition, the public was not only literate, but intelligent and capable of understanding not only words, but the symbols of nationalism and propaganda. One could almost speak of propaganda as the fuel of nationalism, and in the time of war, the fires need to be continually stoked.
At the beginning of the war in 1914, the British government was still somewhat in shock at the sudden reality of actual war. The idea of using propaganda to help enlist neutral countries to join the allies against the Germans suddenly seemed like more than just a hypothetical situation. In what would turn into the beginning of the intellectual battlefield, Prime Minister Asquith appointed C.F.G. Masterman as the head of a previously non-existent British propaganda department. Masterman had been an unnotable member of the British Parliament for years, but the faith of his well-positioned friends, and his resourceful nature proved to give the allies a great weapon in the first few years of the war. On Sept. 2, 1914, Masterman held a secret meeting at the Wellington House, which had become home to the Ministry of Propaganda. At this meeting were twenty-five of the most well renowned authors in England. Some of the more easily recognized names include H.G. Wells, Rudyard Kipling, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. These men were not only well known writers of fiction, but also well respected social commentators whose views were disseminated throughout the media. In what would turn into one of the greatest examples of government and the arts working together (for good or ill) these authors agreed to assist in the propaganda movement, anonymously of course. This, I believe, is an early example of the two step flow theory at work, being that these men influenced huge segments of the British population with their writing. Engaging the intellectual element of British society shows the importance that Masterman and the government put onto the propaganda effort, and also an interesting ploy on behalf of the government to win the loyalty of the intellectual class. The use of
their expertise was instrumental in crafting the romantic notion of war that became such an enticing snare for young men all across the globe. This romantic image of war still permeates the media, from film to Fox (faux) News. Not only this romantic image of war did the authors propagate, but even in fiction stories like Conan Doyle’s classic Sherlock Holmes, characters would pontificate on the symbolic re-emergence of Britain into a better day, tying nationalistic propaganda into situations that were far removed from the standard theatre of war.
The German invasion of and subsequent routing of Belgium and it’s citizens gave the propaganda ministry a juicy subject to begin it’s campaign to win the hearts and minds of the British people as well as possible allies. Posters and pamphlets decried the atrocities committed by the Germans, and it had a galvanizing effect on the public. Wilhelm and his officers were routinely the butt of cartoons, postcards and posters, not only framed as incompetents, but also in what some would consider racially demeaning when the German public begins to be referred to as “ Huns”. An image that not only is widely accepted as truth by the allies, but that also sparks more fear, anger, and nationalism. This sort of propaganda became known as “ atrocity propaganda” and it was extremely effective in not only reinforcing the Allies somewhat skewed belief of German viciousness, but also in tying up German intellectuals in the defense of these sometimes embellished tracts. The propaganda that arose from the invasion became one of the most convincing and inflammatory reasons for neutral countries to join the war.
The Ministry of Propaganda not only understood the importance of controlling morale in the homeland, but it also understood the importance of propagandizing the enemy. Early in the war, pamphlets were already being mailed to Germans from the British via Holland. The use of war pamphlets to both demoralize the enemy and solidify the Allies became one of the most important factors in the war. It is estimated that the British created and distributed some 250,000 pieces of propaganda from 1914 –1916. (Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, p.19)
The pamphlets were created to cover a variety of different topics, and naturally, were written in different languages. By 1915, pamphlets such as the Report on German Outrages had given the Allies a clear-cut vision of not only the reinforcement of the Allies strengths and morality, but also the obvious immorality of the Germans. On the battlefield, pamphlets dropped from balloons informed the German soldiers of the atrocities being committed in their names, and also the fruitlessness of their endeavor. Undermining the morale of the German troops at the frontlines, while it might not be the most significant accomplishment of British war propaganda, certainly helped turning the tide in favor of the Allies.
While the war itself raged on, the importance of American involvement became imperative. While the Germans were slow to begin their propaganda machine at home, let alone abroad, the British were inundating the states with material, and gaining the support of the politicians and the people. This began as early as 1914 with the visitation of James
Barrie, author of Peter Pan and another author, A.E.W. Mason to the states with rather disastrous results. Since Americans were mostly neutral, and there were Americans who supported Germany, the idea of British Intellectuals infiltrating the professors of America and planting the seeds of loyalty to the Allies was bound to cause damage to the hopes Britain had of convincing America to side with her. The incident was further agitated when Barrie was forced to lie to the American press about the relationships of authors with the British propaganda machine, the fact was still a secret. Eventually however, such American thinkers as Theodore Roosevelt, Henry James, and Edith Wharton were producing stateside propaganda in favor of the Allies. Roosevelt began with newspaper articles discussing the situation in Belgium, and became more pro-war after the sinking of the Lusitania. James’s romanticisation of the intellectual and philosophical ramifications of service brought to the American and Allied forces an unusually educated class of soldiers who had envisioned the war as a noble and manly cause. By 1917, within the first week of America entering the war, George Creel was named the head of the American propaganda effort. In a way, the propigandization of America created the perfect atmosphere for the nationalism and social identity that found itself at the heart of America for the entire twentieth century, Roosevelt’s “ Americanism” ideal.
While Germany had an extremely effective propaganda machine in the Second World War, their efforts in the first were no match for the smooth intellectualism of the British model. Part of the reason is because the German propaganda department at the time was also part of the news department, and most of the emphasis was on keeping the public informed as to the events of the day. Also, even the printed propaganda produced by the Germans was unusable as it was printed in German, the prevailing sentiment at the time being that everyone spoke German. While it can be argued that the outcome of the war would have been the same whether or not psychological warfare was used, the ability for the Allies to create dissent in the German ranks and the inability of the German command to retaliate or counter these attacks certainly must have had some effect.
While there are many types of wartime propaganda, the most effective are the pieces that reinforce what the public already inherently believes, more than convince them of new information. Pamphlets can be used for either information or misinformation. Writers can glorify and romanticize the image of war to lead the young and ignorant blind to the slaughter through both war reporting and fiction. Film can also play a large role. Though it had not yet found it’s niche in 1915, film was available of the battles, for the first time in history, and the British created propaganda films based around this real footage. Both for glorifying battle, and reinforcing the animalistic stereotype of the German military. In fact, until the film All Quiet on the Western Front was released in 1930, the romanticized image of the soldier in WWI was prevalent in film
internationally. The things that made Western Front different was that there was no main character or romantic subplot, and new technologies made the audio much more realistic for the viewer. The idealized soldier that was created by the intellectual mythology of world war one has become a standard character in modern cinema of all nationalities. This romantic myth is still echoed in our culture in everything from G.I.Joe to the hyper masculinity of Rambo.
Masterman only lasted a few years as head of British Propaganda, after a few years, his guardian angel, Lord Asquith was no longer in power and the organization that Masterman had begun had come under fire from all angles. But his unique and progressive approach of bringing intellectuals into the world of global politics had a lasting effect on the way wars are fought. As study of communication increased during the 20th century, and so did the methods ( radio, TV. ) of dissemination, propaganda has become harder to decipher. If we look at the Masterman model of nationalistic intellectualism we can easily trace the roots of modern propaganda back to 1914. In the time following his absence the British government often went too far in demonizing the German population, post world war one, and some believe this was the reason that the citizenry was not more quickly alarmed by the actions of Hitler in his formative years.
The war was won in the trenches and with the bodies of countless young men. Whether or not the propaganda efforts affected the public positively or negatively may not have that much significance, and certainly the effort to withhold information or slant it for public consumption will remain a dangerous option for peacetime and wartime governments. In our more violent and instantaneous media format of today, selling the romantic image of the military is virtually impossible. With the war in Iraq, enlistment in the armed forces is at an all time low, One wonders if President Cheney might want to take a page from Mastermans playbook and hire Tom Clancy and Jerry Bruckhiemer to help reinforce some good old-fashioned nationalism. Or if he already has.
I’ve always wanted to know the history of propaganda since it is such an effective tool in communication. It has always been fascinating to me that people will use distortion and confusion to achieve their aims, and that the truth is rarely enough to bend the masses to a governments will. Propaganda, to me, serves the opposite purpose of what media artifacts should serve, they exist to inform, persuade, and entertain falsity. It is the ultimate bastardization of the function of the media and it was at the hands of British intellectauls that this craft was perfected.
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